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planetary year

  • 1 planetary year

    планетарный год

    Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > planetary year

  • 2 planetary year

    планетарный год

    Англо-русский большой универсальный переводческий словарь > planetary year

  • 3 planetary year

    астр. планетарный год

    Англо-русский современный словарь > planetary year

  • 4 planetary

    ˈplænɪtərɪ прил.
    1) а) планетный, планетарный;
    напоминающий планету, схожий( по какому-л. признаку) с планетой как таковой planetary electron planetary system planetary year planetary hour planetary nebula б) космический, вселенский Syn: cosmic
    2) земной, мирской;
    принадлежащий нашей планете Syn: terrestrial, mundane
    3) перен. блуждающий, странствующий, скитающийся (подобно планете в пространстве) Syn: wandering, roaming, erratic
    4) тех. планетарный planetary gear ≈ планетарная передача, колесо( техническое) планетарная передача планетный;
    планетарный - * system солнечная система - * nebula (астрономия) планетарная туманность земной, мирской мировой, всемирный блуждающий;
    странствующий - his * carrer over the face of the globe его странствования по свету (техническое) планетарный planetary блуждающий ~ земной, мирской ~ планетный, планетарный;
    planetary system солнечная система ~ планетный, планетарный;
    planetary system солнечная система

    Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > planetary

  • 5 planetary

    ['plænɪt(ə)rɪ]
    прил.
    1)
    а) планетный, планетарный; напоминающий планету, схожий (по какому-л. признаку) с планетой
    - planetary system
    - planetary year
    - planetary hour
    - planetary nebula
    б) космический, вселенский
    Syn:
    2)
    а) земной, мирской
    Syn:
    б) принадлежащий нашей планете, земной, с Земли
    3) блуждающий, странствующий, скитающийся
    Syn:
    4) тех. планетарный

    planetary gear — планетарная передача, планетарное колесо

    Англо-русский современный словарь > planetary

  • 6 ग्रहः _grahḥ

    ग्रहः [ग्रह्-अच्]
    1 Seizing, grasping, laying hold of, seizure, रुरुधुः कचग्रहैः R.19.31.
    -2 A grip, grasp, hold; विक्रम्य कौशिकं खड्गं मोक्षयित्वा ग्रहं रिपोः Mb.3.157.11; कर्कटक- ग्रहात् Pt.1.26.
    -3 Taking, receiving, accepting; re- ceipt.
    -4 Stealing, robbing; अङ्गुलीग्रन्थिभेदस्य छेदयेत्प्रथमे ग्रहे Ms.9.277; so गोग्रहः.
    -5 Booty, spoil.
    -6 Eclipse; see ग्रहण.
    -7 A planet, (sometimes more particularly 'Rāhu'; वध्यमाने ग्रहेणाथ आदित्ये मन्युराविशत् Mb.1.24.7.) (the planets are nine:-- सूर्यश्चन्द्रो मङ्गलश्च बुधश्चापि बृहस्पतिः । शुक्रः शनैश्चरो राहुः केतुश्चेति ग्रहा नव ॥); नक्षत्रताराग्रहसंकुलापि (रात्रिः) R.6.22;3.13;12.28; गुरुणा स्तनभारेण मुखचन्द्रेण भास्वता । शनैश्चराभ्यां पादाभ्यां रेजे ग्रहमयीव सा ॥ Bh.1.17.
    -8 Mentioning; utterance, repeating (as of a name) नामजातिग्रहं त्वेषामभिद्रोहेण कुर्वतः Ms.8.271; Amaru.85.
    -9 A shark, crocodile.
    -1 An imp in general.
    -11 A parti- cular class of evil demons supposed to seize upon children and produce convulsions &c. cf. Mb. Crit. ed. 3.219.26; कृष्णग्रहगृहीतात्मा न वेद जगदीदृशम् Bhāg.7.4.38.
    -12 Appre- hension, perception; ज्योतिश्चक्षुर्गुणग्रहः....... श्रोत्रं गुणग्रहः Bhāg.2.1.21-22.
    -13 An organ or instrument of apprehension; Bṛi. Up.3.2.1.
    -14 Tenacity, per- severance, persistence; नृणां स्वत्वग्रहो यतः Bhāg.7.14.11.
    -15 Purpose, design.
    -16 Favour, patronage.
    -17 The place of a planet in the fixed zodiac.
    -18 The number 'nine'.
    -19 Any state of mind which proceeds from magical influences.
    -2 A house.
    -21 A spoonful, ladleful; ग्रहान्त्सोमस्य मिमते द्वादश Rv.1.114.5.
    -22 A ladle or vessel; चमसानां ग्रहाणां च शुद्धिः प्रक्षालनेन तु Ms.5.116.
    -23 The middle of a bow.
    -24 A movable point in the heavens.
    -25 Keeping back, obstructing.
    -26 Taking away, depriving; प्राण˚ Pt.1.295.
    -27 Preparation for war; ग्रहो$वग्रहनिर्बन्धग्रहणेषु रणोद्यमे । सूर्यादौ पूतनादौ च सैंहिकेये$पि तत् त्रिषु । Nm.
    -28 A guest (अतिथि); यथा सिद्धस्य चान्नस्य ग्रहायाग्रं प्रदीयते Mb.13.1.6.
    -29 Imprisoning, imprisonment; Mb.13.136.11.
    -Comp. -अग्रेसरः the moon; Dk.8.1.
    -अधीन a. subject to planetary influence.
    -अवमर्दनः an epithet of Rāhu. (
    -नम्) friction of the planets.
    -अधीशः the sun.
    -आधारः, -आश्रयः polar star (as the fixed centre of the planets).
    -आमयः 1 epilepsy.
    -2 demoniacal possession.
    -आलुञ्चनम् pouncing on one's prey, tearing it to pieces; श्येनो ग्रहालुञ्चने Mk.3.2.
    -आवर्तः horoscope.
    -ईशः the sun.
    -एकत्वन्यायः the rule according to which the gender and number of उद्देशपद is not necessarily combined along with the action laid down in the विधेयपद. This is discussed by जैमिनि and शबर at MS. III.1.13-15 (opp. of अरुणान्याय or पश्वेकत्वन्याय).
    -कल्लोलः an epithet of Rāhu.
    -कुण्डलिका the mutual relation of planets and prophecy derived from it.
    -गणितम् the astronomical part of a ज्योतिःशास्त्र.
    -गतिः the motion of the planets.
    -ग्रामणी the sun.
    -चिन्तकः an astrologer.
    -दशा the aspect of a planet, the time during which it continues to exercise its influence.
    -देवता the deity that presides over a planet.
    -नायकः 1 the sun.
    -2 an epithet of Saturn.
    -निग्रहौ (du.) reward and punishment.
    -नेमिः 1 the moon.
    -2 the section of the moon's course between the asterisms मूल and मृगशीर्ष.
    -पतिः 1 the sun.
    -2 the moon; तस्य विस्तीर्यते राज्यं ज्योत्स्ना ग्रहपतेरिव Mb.12.118.15.
    -पीडनम्, -पीडा 1 oppression caused by a planet.
    -2 an eclipse; शशिदिवाकरयोर्ग्रहपीडनम् Bh.2.91; H.1.51; Pt.2.19.
    -पुषः the sun.
    -भक्तिः f. division of countries &c. with respect to the presiding planets.
    -भोजनः 1 oblation offered to the planets.
    -2 a horse.
    -मण्डलम्, -ली the circle of the planets.
    -यज्ञः, -यागः worship or sacrifice offered to the planets.
    -युतिः, -योगः conjunction of planets.
    -युद्ध opposition of planets.
    -राजः 1 the sun.
    -2 the moon.
    -3 Jupiter.
    -लाघवम् N. of an astro- nomical work of the 16th century.
    -वर्षः the planetary year.
    -विप्रः an astrologer.
    -शान्तिः f. propitiation of planets by sacrifices &c.
    -शृङ्गाटकम् triangular position of the planets with reference to one another.
    -सङ्गमः conjunction of planets.
    -स्वरः the Ist note of a musical piece.

    Sanskrit-English dictionary > ग्रहः _grahḥ

  • 7 ग्रहवर्ष


    gráha-varsha
    m. a planetary year VarBṛS. ;

    - phala n. N. of VarBṛS. XIX (describing the good andﾠ evil fortune belonging to certain days, months, orﾠ years ruled over by particular planets)

    Sanskrit-English dictionary > ग्रहवर्ष

  • 8 daśā

    Planetary period or system of directions. Also means the actual Major planetary period itself. There are many of these the most used being viṅśottarī or 120 year cycle system. Others are aṣṭottari (108), chaturśeetisama (84), dwadaśottari (112), dwisaptatisama (72), panchottari (105), śaṣṭisama (60), śatatriṅśatsama (36), śodaśottari (116), yogini (30). These are lunar based. Then there are raśi (sign) based systems: chara, sthira, kāla chakra and kendrādi dashas etc.

    Sanskrit-English dictionary by latin letters > daśā

  • 9 Sendzimir, Tadeusz

    SUBJECT AREA: Metallurgy
    [br]
    fl. twentieth century USA
    [br]
    American metallurgist, inventor of the planetary rolling mill.
    [br]
    The principle of the Sendzimir or planetary rolling mill was first conceived by an English engineer named Picken, but that did not lead to practical development. The principle was taken up independently in the USA by Sendzimir, who put forward his own ideas in 1948 and obtained a patent the same year. By 1952 he had reached agreements with Picken and other workers to license the construction of a plant completely under the control of Sendzimir and his associates. This type of rolling mill was developed primarily for the cold rolling of steel strip. Cold rolling requires higher pressures to be exerted by the rolls, which therefore must be harder than in hot rolling. In the Sendzimir mill the two hard work rolls are backed up by a cluster of heavier rolls of various sizes to prevent distortion of the work rolls. One advantage of this arrangement is that the work rolls can be quite small, so that they can be removed by hand when they need replacement. The Sendzimir mill is in wide use, particularly for rolling stainless steel. The first such mill was installed at Peugeot's in France in 1950, with two sets of planetary rolls for the hot rolling of 16 in. (41 cm) wide steel strip. The second was in the USA in 1951, and a third, larger one followed at Ductile Steels Ltd at Willenhall, Wolverhampton, England, in 1953.
    [br]
    Further Reading
    E.C.Larke, 1957, The Rolling of Strip, Sheet and Plate, London: Chapman \& Hall, pp. 53 ff. (gives some details of planetary mills, with a little historical background).
    LRD

    Biographical history of technology > Sendzimir, Tadeusz

  • 10 बाल _bāla

    बाल a.
    1 Young, infantine, not full-grown or deve- loped (of persons or things); बालेन स्थविरेण वा Ms. 8.7; बालाशोकमुपोढरागसुभगं भेदोन्मुखं तिष्ठति V.2.7; so बालमन्दारवृक्षः Me.77; R.2.45;13.24.
    -2 Newly risen, young (as the sun or its rays); बालार्कप्रतिमे- वाप्सु वीचिभिन्ना पतिष्यतः R.12.1.
    -3 New, waxing (as the moon); पुपोष वृद्धिं हरिदश्वदीधितेरनुप्रवेशादिव बाल- चन्द्रमाः R.3.22; Ku.3.29.
    -4 Puerile.
    -5 Ignorant, unwise; अनर्थकुशला ह्येते बालाः पण्डितमानिनः Rām.2.1.38.
    -6 Pure (as an animal fit for sacrifice).
    -लः 1 A child, an infant; बालादपि सुभाषितम् (ग्राह्यम्); Ms.2.239.
    -2 A boy, youth, young person.
    -3 A minor (under 16 years of age); बाल आषोडशाद्वर्षात् Nārada.
    -4 A colt, foal.
    -5 A fool, simpleton; नीरसायां रसं बालो बालिकायां विकल्पयेत् Pt.4.91.
    -6 (a) A tail. (b) An elephant's or a horse's tail.
    -7 Hair; तं केशपाशं प्रसमीक्ष्य कुर्युर्बालप्रियत्वं शिथिलं चमर्यः Ku.1.48.
    -8 An elephant five years old; 'पञ्चवर्षो गजो बालः पोतस्तु दशवार्षिकः' Vaijayantī. According to Mātaṅga L. (5.2.) however it means an elephant in the first year.
    -9 A kind of perfume.
    -1 The cocoa-nut.
    -Comp. -अग्रम् 1 the point of a hair.
    -2 A dove-cot; प्रासादबालाग्रकपोतपालिकायामुपविष्टः शृणोमि Mk.1.51/ 52.
    -अध्यापकः a tutor of youths or children.
    -अपत्यम् youthful progeny.
    -अभ्यासः study during childhood, early application (to study).
    -अरुण a. red like early dawn. (
    -णः) early dawn; morning sun.
    -अर्कः the newly-risen sun; R.12.1.
    -अवबोधः, -नम् instruc- tion of the young; Pt.1.
    -अवस्थ a. juvenile, young; भुवमधिपतिर्बालाबस्थो$प्यलं परिरक्षितुम् V.5.18.
    -अवस्था child- hood.
    -आतपः morning sunshine.
    -आमयः a child's disease.
    -इन्दुः the new or waxing moon; बालेन्दुवक्राप्य- विकाशभावाद् बभुः पलाशान्यतिलोहितानि Ku.3.29.
    -इष्टः the jujube tree.
    -उपचारः, -चरणम् (medical) treatment of children.
    -उपवीतम् 1 a piece of cloth used to cover the privities.
    -2 The sacrificial cord.
    -कदली a young plantain tree.
    -काण्डम् the first book of the Rāmāyaṇa.
    -कुन्दः, -दम् a kind of young jasmine. (
    -दम्) a young jasmine blossom; अलके बालकुन्दानुविद्धम् Me.67.
    -कृमिः a louse.
    -कृष्णः Kṛiṣṇa as a boy.
    -केलिः, -ली f. child's play or amusement.
    -क्रीडनम् a child's play or toy.
    -क्रीडनकम् a child's toy.
    -कः 1 a ball.
    -2 an epithet of Śiva.
    -क्रीडा a child's play, childish or juvenile sport.
    -खिल्यः a class of divine personages of the size of a thumb and produced from the creator's body and said to precede the sun's chariot (their number is said to be sixty thousand); cf. R.15.1; क्रतोश्च सन्ततिर्भार्या बालखिल्यानसूयत । षष्टिर्यानि सहस्राणि ऋषिणामूर्ध्व- रेतसाम् ॥ Mārk. P.
    -गर्भिणी a cow with calf for the first time.
    -गोपालः 'the youthful cowherd', an epithet of Kṛiṣṇa, as the boycowherd.
    -ग्रहः any demon (or planetary influence) teasing or injuring children; बालग्रहस्तत्र विचिन्वती शिशून् Bhāg.1.6.7.
    -घ्नः a child- slayer, infanticide; Ms.11.19.
    -चन्द्रः -चन्द्रमस् m.
    1 the young or waxing moon; इह जगति महोत्सवस्य हेतुर्नयनवतामुदियाय बालचन्द्रः Māl.2.1.
    -2 a cavity of a particular shape; Mk.3.13.
    -चरितम् 1 juvenile sports.
    -2 early life or actions; U.6.
    -चर्यः N. of Kārtikeya. (
    -र्या) the bahaviour of a child.
    -चुम्बालः a fish; Nigh. Ratn.
    -चतः a young mango-tree; धत्तेचक्षुर्मुकुलिनि रणत्कोकिले बालचूते Māl.3.12.
    -ज a. produced from hair.
    -जातीय a. childish, foolish, simple.
    -तनयः the Kha- dira tree.
    -तन्त्रम् midwifery.
    -तृणम् young grass.
    -दलकः the Khadira.
    -धनम् the property of a minor; Ms.8.149.
    -धिः (also बालधिः) a hairy tail; तुरंगमैरा- यतकीर्णवालधिः Śi.12.73; Ki.12.47.
    -नेत्र a. guided or steered by a fool.
    -पत्रः, -पत्रकः the Khadira tree.
    -पाश्या 1 an ornament worn in the hair when parted.
    -2 a string of pearls binding or intertwining the braid of hair.
    -पुष्टिका, -पुष्टी, -पुष्पी a kind of jasmine.
    -बोधः 1 instructing the young.
    -2 any work adapted to the capacities of the young or inexperienced.
    -भद्रकः a kind of poison.
    -भारः a large bushy tail; बाधेतोल्का- क्षपितचमरीबालभारो दवाग्निः Me.55.
    -भावः 1 child-hood, infancy.
    -2 a hairy growth; एतद्भ्रुवौ जन्म तदाप युग्मं लीलाचलत्वोचितबालभावम् N.7.26.
    -3 inattention; Ms. 8.118. (Kull.)
    -4 children (collectively).
    -5 recent rise (of a planet).
    -भृत्यः a servant from childhood.
    -भैषज्यम् a kind of collyrium.
    -भोज्यः pease.
    -मनो- रमा N. of several grammars.
    -मरणम् (with Jainas) a fool's manner of dying (12 in number).
    -मित्रः a friend from boyhood.
    -मृगः a fawn.
    -मूलम् a young radish.
    -मूषिका a small mouse.
    -मृणालः a tender filament or fibre (of lotus); व्यालं बालमृणालतन्तुभिरसौ रोद्धुं समुज्<?>म्भते Bh.2.6.
    -यज्ञोपवीतकम् the sacred thread worn across the breast.
    -राजम् lapis lazuli.
    -रोगः a child's disease; अथ बालरोगाणां निदानानि लक्षणानि चाह । धात्र्यास्तु गुरुभिर्भोज्यैर्विषमैर्दोषलैस्तथा...... Bhāva. P.
    -लता a young creeper; अवाकिरन् बाललताः प्रसूनैः R.2.1.
    -लीला child's play, juvenile pastime.
    -वत्सः 1 a young calf.
    -2 a pigeon.
    -वायजम् lapis lazuli.
    -वासस् n. a woollen garment.
    -वाह्यः a young or wild goat.
    -विधवा a child-widow.
    -वैधव्यम् child-widowhood.
    -व्यजनम् a chowrie or fly-flapper (usually made of the tail of the yāk or Bos Grunniens and used as one of the royal insignia); यस्यार्थयुक्तं गिरिराजशब्दं कुर्वन्ति बाल- व्यजनैश्चमर्यः Ku.1.13; R.9.66;14.11;16.33,57.
    -व्रतः an epithet of a Buddha saint Mañjughoṣa.
    -सखि m. a friend from childhood.
    -संध्या early twilight.
    -सात्म्यम् milk.
    -सुहृद् m. a friend of one's youth.
    -सूर्यः, -सूर्यकः lapis lazuli.
    -स्थानम् 1 childhood.
    -2 youth.
    -3 inexperience.
    -हत्या infanticide.
    -हस्तः a hairy tail.

    Sanskrit-English dictionary > बाल _bāla

  • 11 FIMT

    * * *
    or fimmt, f. a number of five: fimtar-tala, u, f. a set of five or multiple of five (as fifteen, fifty, etc.), Bs. i. 190.
    2. [Swed. femt = a kind of court], a law phrase, a summoning before a court with a notice of five days: a standing phrase in the Norse law, so that the verb fimta means to summon: so, fimtar-grið, n. pl. a truce during a fimt, N. G. L. i. 342, 351; fimmtar-nafn, n. a citation with a fimt’s notice, 86; fimmtar-stefna, u, f. a citation before a court with a fimt’s notice, K. Á. 184: the phrase gera e-m fimt simply means to summon, N. G. L. i. 346, passim; one fimt is the shortest notice for summoning, five fimts the longest,—fimm fimtum hit lengsta, ef hann veit nær þing skal vera, 21:—the law provides that no summoning shall take place on Tuesday, because in that case the court-day would fall on Sunday, the day of summoning not being counted, N. G. L., Jb., and K. Á. passim.—This law term is very curious, and seems to be a remnant of the old heathen division of time into fimts (pentads), each month consisting of six such weeks; the old heathen year would then have consisted of seventy-two fimts, a holy number, as composed of 2 × 36 and 6 × 12. With the introduction of the names of the planetary days (vide dagr) and the Christian week, the old fimt only remained in law and common sayings; thus in Hm. 73,—‘there are many turns of the weather in five days (viz. a fimt), but more in a month,’ which would be unintelligible unless we bear in mind that a fimt just answered to our week; or verse 50,—‘among bad friends love flames high for five days, but is slaked when the sixth comes;’ in a few cases, esp. in ecclesiastical law, sjaund (hebdomad) is substituted for the older fimt, N. G. L. passim; it is curious that in Icel. law (Grág.) the fimt scarcely occurs, as in Icel. the modern week seems to have superseded the old at an early time.
    COMPDS: Fimtardómr, Fimtardómseiðr, Fimtardómslög, Fimtardómsmal, Fimtardomsstefna, Fimtardómssök, fimtarþing.

    Íslensk-ensk orðabók > FIMT

  • 12 प्लव


    plava

    plavá
    mf (ā)n. swimming, floating ṠāṇkhGṛ. Suṡr. ;

    sloping towards, inclined Hariv. Var. Hcat. (in astrol. applied to a constellation situated in the quarter ruled by its planetary regent Var. Sch.);
    transient MuṇḍUp. ;
    m. n. (ifc. f. ā) a float, raft, boat, small ship RV. etc. etc.;
    m. a kind of aquatic bird (= gātra-samplava, kāraṇḍava, jala-vāyasa, jala-kāka orﾠ jala-kukkuṭa L.) VS. etc. etc.;
    a frog L. ;
    a monkey L. ;
    a sheep L. an arm L. ;
    a Caṇḍāla L. ;
    an enemy L. ;
    Ficus Infectoria L. ;
    a snare orﾠ basket of wicker-work for catching fish L. ;
    the 35th ( orﾠ 9th) year in a cycle of Jupiter VarBṛS. ;
    swimming, bathing (ifc. f. ā) MBh. R. Kathās. ;
    flooding, a flood, the swelling of a river MBh. MārkP. ;
    the prolated utterance of a vowel (= pluti) L. ;
    protraction of a sentence through 3 orﾠ more Ṡlokas (= kulaka) L. ;
    sloping down orﾠ towards, proclivity, inclination L. ;
    (in astrol.) = plava-tva VarBṛS. Sch. ;
    a kind of metre Col.;
    N. of a Sāman. ( alsoﾠ with vasishṭhasya) ĀrshBr. ;
    jumping, leaping, plunging, going by leaps orﾠ plunges R. (cf. comp. below);
    returning L. ;
    urging on L. ;
    n. Cyperus Rotundus orﾠ a species of fragrant grass Suṡr. ;
    + cf. Gk. πλόος for πλογγος, πλοῖον

    Sanskrit-English dictionary > प्लव

  • 13 Ford, Henry

    [br]
    b. 30 July 1863 Dearborn, Michigan, USA
    d. 7 April 1947 Dearborn, Michigan, USA
    [br]
    American pioneer motor-car maker and developer of mass-production methods.
    [br]
    He was the son of an Irish immigrant farmer, William Ford, and the oldest son to survive of Mary Litogot; his mother died in 1876 with the birth of her sixth child. He went to the village school, and at the age of 16 he was apprenticed to Flower brothers' machine shop and then at the Drydock \& Engineering Works in Detroit. In 1882 he left to return to the family farm and spent some time working with a 1 1/2 hp steam engine doing odd jobs for the farming community at $3 per day. He was then employed as a demonstrator for Westinghouse steam engines. He met Clara Jane Bryant at New Year 1885 and they were married on 11 April 1888. Their only child, Edsel Bryant Ford, was born on 6 November 1893.
    At that time Henry worked on steam engine repairs for the Edison Illuminating Company, where he became Chief Engineer. He became one of a group working to develop a "horseless carriage" in 1896 and in June completed his first vehicle, a "quadri cycle" with a two-cylinder engine. It was built in a brick shed, which had to be partially demolished to get the carriage out.
    Ford became involved in motor racing, at which he was more successful than he was in starting a car-manufacturing company. Several early ventures failed, until the Ford Motor Company of 1903. By October 1908 they had started with production of the Model T. The first, of which over 15 million were built up to the end of its production in May 1927, came out with bought-out steel stampings and a planetary gearbox, and had a one-piece four-cylinder block with a bolt-on head. This was one of the most successful models built by Ford or any other motor manufacturer in the life of the motor car.
    Interchangeability of components was an important element in Ford's philosophy. Ford was a pioneer in the use of vanadium steel for engine components. He adopted the principles of Frederick Taylor, the pioneer of time-and-motion study, and installed the world's first moving assembly line for the production of magnetos, started in 1913. He installed blast furnaces at the factory to make his own steel, and he also promoted research and the cultivation of the soya bean, from which a plastic was derived.
    In October 1913 he introduced the "Five Dollar Day", almost doubling the normal rate of pay. This was a profit-sharing scheme for his employees and contained an element of a reward for good behaviour. About this time he initiated work on an agricultural tractor, the "Fordson" made by a separate company, the directors of which were Henry and his son Edsel.
    In 1915 he chartered the Oscar II, a "peace ship", and with fifty-five delegates sailed for Europe a week before Christmas, docking at Oslo. Their objective was to appeal to all European Heads of State to stop the war. He had hoped to persuade manufacturers to replace armaments with tractors in their production programmes. In the event, Ford took to his bed in the hotel with a chill, stayed there for five days and then sailed for New York and home. He did, however, continue to finance the peace activists who remained in Europe. Back in America, he stood for election to the US Senate but was defeated. He was probably the father of John Dahlinger, illegitimate son of Evangeline Dahlinger, a stenographer employed by the firm and on whom he lavished gifts of cars, clothes and properties. He became the owner of a weekly newspaper, the Dearborn Independent, which became the medium for the expression of many of his more unorthodox ideas. He was involved in a lawsuit with the Chicago Tribune in 1919, during which he was cross-examined on his knowledge of American history: he is reputed to have said "History is bunk". What he actually said was, "History is bunk as it is taught in schools", a very different comment. The lawyers who thus made a fool of him would have been surprised if they could have foreseen the force and energy that their actions were to release. For years Ford employed a team of specialists to scour America and Europe for furniture, artefacts and relics of all kinds, illustrating various aspects of history. Starting with the Wayside Inn from South Sudbury, Massachusetts, buildings were bought, dismantled and moved, to be reconstructed in Greenfield Village, near Dearborn. The courthouse where Abraham Lincoln had practised law and the Ohio bicycle shop where the Wright brothers built their first primitive aeroplane were added to the farmhouse where the proprietor, Henry Ford, had been born. Replicas were made of Independence Hall, Congress Hall and the old City Hall in Philadelphia, and even a reconstruction of Edison's Menlo Park laboratory was installed. The Henry Ford museum was officially opened on 21 October 1929, on the fiftieth anniversary of Edison's invention of the incandescent bulb, but it continued to be a primary preoccupation of the great American car maker until his death.
    Henry Ford was also responsible for a number of aeronautical developments at the Ford Airport at Dearborn. He introduced the first use of radio to guide a commercial aircraft, the first regular airmail service in the United States. He also manufactured the country's first all-metal multi-engined plane, the Ford Tri-Motor.
    Edsel became President of the Ford Motor Company on his father's resignation from that position on 30 December 1918. Following the end of production in May 1927 of the Model T, the replacement Model A was not in production for another six months. During this period Henry Ford, though officially retired from the presidency of the company, repeatedly interfered and countermanded the orders of his son, ostensibly the man in charge. Edsel, who died of stomach cancer at his home at Grosse Point, Detroit, on 26 May 1943, was the father of Henry Ford II. Henry Ford died at his home, "Fair Lane", four years after his son's death.
    [br]
    Bibliography
    1922, with S.Crowther, My Life and Work, London: Heinemann.
    Further Reading
    R.Lacey, 1986, Ford, the Men and the Machine, London: Heinemann. W.C.Richards, 1948, The Last Billionaire, Henry Ford, New York: Charles Scribner.
    IMcN

    Biographical history of technology > Ford, Henry

  • 14 Artificial Intelligence

       In my opinion, none of [these programs] does even remote justice to the complexity of human mental processes. Unlike men, "artificially intelligent" programs tend to be single minded, undistractable, and unemotional. (Neisser, 1967, p. 9)
       Future progress in [artificial intelligence] will depend on the development of both practical and theoretical knowledge.... As regards theoretical knowledge, some have sought a unified theory of artificial intelligence. My view is that artificial intelligence is (or soon will be) an engineering discipline since its primary goal is to build things. (Nilsson, 1971, pp. vii-viii)
       Most workers in AI [artificial intelligence] research and in related fields confess to a pronounced feeling of disappointment in what has been achieved in the last 25 years. Workers entered the field around 1950, and even around 1960, with high hopes that are very far from being realized in 1972. In no part of the field have the discoveries made so far produced the major impact that was then promised.... In the meantime, claims and predictions regarding the potential results of AI research had been publicized which went even farther than the expectations of the majority of workers in the field, whose embarrassments have been added to by the lamentable failure of such inflated predictions....
       When able and respected scientists write in letters to the present author that AI, the major goal of computing science, represents "another step in the general process of evolution"; that possibilities in the 1980s include an all-purpose intelligence on a human-scale knowledge base; that awe-inspiring possibilities suggest themselves based on machine intelligence exceeding human intelligence by the year 2000 [one has the right to be skeptical]. (Lighthill, 1972, p. 17)
       4) Just as Astronomy Succeeded Astrology, the Discovery of Intellectual Processes in Machines Should Lead to a Science, Eventually
       Just as astronomy succeeded astrology, following Kepler's discovery of planetary regularities, the discoveries of these many principles in empirical explorations on intellectual processes in machines should lead to a science, eventually. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)
       Many problems arise in experiments on machine intelligence because things obvious to any person are not represented in any program. One can pull with a string, but one cannot push with one.... Simple facts like these caused serious problems when Charniak attempted to extend Bobrow's "Student" program to more realistic applications, and they have not been faced up to until now. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 77)
       What do we mean by [a symbolic] "description"? We do not mean to suggest that our descriptions must be made of strings of ordinary language words (although they might be). The simplest kind of description is a structure in which some features of a situation are represented by single ("primitive") symbols, and relations between those features are represented by other symbols-or by other features of the way the description is put together. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)
       [AI is] the use of computer programs and programming techniques to cast light on the principles of intelligence in general and human thought in particular. (Boden, 1977, p. 5)
       The word you look for and hardly ever see in the early AI literature is the word knowledge. They didn't believe you have to know anything, you could always rework it all.... In fact 1967 is the turning point in my mind when there was enough feeling that the old ideas of general principles had to go.... I came up with an argument for what I called the primacy of expertise, and at the time I called the other guys the generalists. (Moses, quoted in McCorduck, 1979, pp. 228-229)
       9) Artificial Intelligence Is Psychology in a Particularly Pure and Abstract Form
       The basic idea of cognitive science is that intelligent beings are semantic engines-in other words, automatic formal systems with interpretations under which they consistently make sense. We can now see why this includes psychology and artificial intelligence on a more or less equal footing: people and intelligent computers (if and when there are any) turn out to be merely different manifestations of the same underlying phenomenon. Moreover, with universal hardware, any semantic engine can in principle be formally imitated by a computer if only the right program can be found. And that will guarantee semantic imitation as well, since (given the appropriate formal behavior) the semantics is "taking care of itself" anyway. Thus we also see why, from this perspective, artificial intelligence can be regarded as psychology in a particularly pure and abstract form. The same fundamental structures are under investigation, but in AI, all the relevant parameters are under direct experimental control (in the programming), without any messy physiology or ethics to get in the way. (Haugeland, 1981b, p. 31)
       There are many different kinds of reasoning one might imagine:
        Formal reasoning involves the syntactic manipulation of data structures to deduce new ones following prespecified rules of inference. Mathematical logic is the archetypical formal representation. Procedural reasoning uses simulation to answer questions and solve problems. When we use a program to answer What is the sum of 3 and 4? it uses, or "runs," a procedural model of arithmetic. Reasoning by analogy seems to be a very natural mode of thought for humans but, so far, difficult to accomplish in AI programs. The idea is that when you ask the question Can robins fly? the system might reason that "robins are like sparrows, and I know that sparrows can fly, so robins probably can fly."
        Generalization and abstraction are also natural reasoning process for humans that are difficult to pin down well enough to implement in a program. If one knows that Robins have wings, that Sparrows have wings, and that Blue jays have wings, eventually one will believe that All birds have wings. This capability may be at the core of most human learning, but it has not yet become a useful technique in AI.... Meta- level reasoning is demonstrated by the way one answers the question What is Paul Newman's telephone number? You might reason that "if I knew Paul Newman's number, I would know that I knew it, because it is a notable fact." This involves using "knowledge about what you know," in particular, about the extent of your knowledge and about the importance of certain facts. Recent research in psychology and AI indicates that meta-level reasoning may play a central role in human cognitive processing. (Barr & Feigenbaum, 1981, pp. 146-147)
       Suffice it to say that programs already exist that can do things-or, at the very least, appear to be beginning to do things-which ill-informed critics have asserted a priori to be impossible. Examples include: perceiving in a holistic as opposed to an atomistic way; using language creatively; translating sensibly from one language to another by way of a language-neutral semantic representation; planning acts in a broad and sketchy fashion, the details being decided only in execution; distinguishing between different species of emotional reaction according to the psychological context of the subject. (Boden, 1981, p. 33)
       Can the synthesis of Man and Machine ever be stable, or will the purely organic component become such a hindrance that it has to be discarded? If this eventually happens-and I have... good reasons for thinking that it must-we have nothing to regret and certainly nothing to fear. (Clarke, 1984, p. 243)
       The thesis of GOFAI... is not that the processes underlying intelligence can be described symbolically... but that they are symbolic. (Haugeland, 1985, p. 113)
        14) Artificial Intelligence Provides a Useful Approach to Psychological and Psychiatric Theory Formation
       It is all very well formulating psychological and psychiatric theories verbally but, when using natural language (even technical jargon), it is difficult to recognise when a theory is complete; oversights are all too easily made, gaps too readily left. This is a point which is generally recognised to be true and it is for precisely this reason that the behavioural sciences attempt to follow the natural sciences in using "classical" mathematics as a more rigorous descriptive language. However, it is an unfortunate fact that, with a few notable exceptions, there has been a marked lack of success in this application. It is my belief that a different approach-a different mathematics-is needed, and that AI provides just this approach. (Hand, quoted in Hand, 1985, pp. 6-7)
       We might distinguish among four kinds of AI.
       Research of this kind involves building and programming computers to perform tasks which, to paraphrase Marvin Minsky, would require intelligence if they were done by us. Researchers in nonpsychological AI make no claims whatsoever about the psychological realism of their programs or the devices they build, that is, about whether or not computers perform tasks as humans do.
       Research here is guided by the view that the computer is a useful tool in the study of mind. In particular, we can write computer programs or build devices that simulate alleged psychological processes in humans and then test our predictions about how the alleged processes work. We can weave these programs and devices together with other programs and devices that simulate different alleged mental processes and thereby test the degree to which the AI system as a whole simulates human mentality. According to weak psychological AI, working with computer models is a way of refining and testing hypotheses about processes that are allegedly realized in human minds.
    ... According to this view, our minds are computers and therefore can be duplicated by other computers. Sherry Turkle writes that the "real ambition is of mythic proportions, making a general purpose intelligence, a mind." (Turkle, 1984, p. 240) The authors of a major text announce that "the ultimate goal of AI research is to build a person or, more humbly, an animal." (Charniak & McDermott, 1985, p. 7)
       Research in this field, like strong psychological AI, takes seriously the functionalist view that mentality can be realized in many different types of physical devices. Suprapsychological AI, however, accuses strong psychological AI of being chauvinisticof being only interested in human intelligence! Suprapsychological AI claims to be interested in all the conceivable ways intelligence can be realized. (Flanagan, 1991, pp. 241-242)
        16) Determination of Relevance of Rules in Particular Contexts
       Even if the [rules] were stored in a context-free form the computer still couldn't use them. To do that the computer requires rules enabling it to draw on just those [ rules] which are relevant in each particular context. Determination of relevance will have to be based on further facts and rules, but the question will again arise as to which facts and rules are relevant for making each particular determination. One could always invoke further facts and rules to answer this question, but of course these must be only the relevant ones. And so it goes. It seems that AI workers will never be able to get started here unless they can settle the problem of relevance beforehand by cataloguing types of context and listing just those facts which are relevant in each. (Dreyfus & Dreyfus, 1986, p. 80)
       Perhaps the single most important idea to artificial intelligence is that there is no fundamental difference between form and content, that meaning can be captured in a set of symbols such as a semantic net. (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)
        18) The Assumption That the Mind Is a Formal System
       Artificial intelligence is based on the assumption that the mind can be described as some kind of formal system manipulating symbols that stand for things in the world. Thus it doesn't matter what the brain is made of, or what it uses for tokens in the great game of thinking. Using an equivalent set of tokens and rules, we can do thinking with a digital computer, just as we can play chess using cups, salt and pepper shakers, knives, forks, and spoons. Using the right software, one system (the mind) can be mapped into the other (the computer). (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)
        19) A Statement of the Primary and Secondary Purposes of Artificial Intelligence
       The primary goal of Artificial Intelligence is to make machines smarter.
       The secondary goals of Artificial Intelligence are to understand what intelligence is (the Nobel laureate purpose) and to make machines more useful (the entrepreneurial purpose). (Winston, 1987, p. 1)
       The theoretical ideas of older branches of engineering are captured in the language of mathematics. We contend that mathematical logic provides the basis for theory in AI. Although many computer scientists already count logic as fundamental to computer science in general, we put forward an even stronger form of the logic-is-important argument....
       AI deals mainly with the problem of representing and using declarative (as opposed to procedural) knowledge. Declarative knowledge is the kind that is expressed as sentences, and AI needs a language in which to state these sentences. Because the languages in which this knowledge usually is originally captured (natural languages such as English) are not suitable for computer representations, some other language with the appropriate properties must be used. It turns out, we think, that the appropriate properties include at least those that have been uppermost in the minds of logicians in their development of logical languages such as the predicate calculus. Thus, we think that any language for expressing knowledge in AI systems must be at least as expressive as the first-order predicate calculus. (Genesereth & Nilsson, 1987, p. viii)
        21) Perceptual Structures Can Be Represented as Lists of Elementary Propositions
       In artificial intelligence studies, perceptual structures are represented as assemblages of description lists, the elementary components of which are propositions asserting that certain relations hold among elements. (Chase & Simon, 1988, p. 490)
       Artificial intelligence (AI) is sometimes defined as the study of how to build and/or program computers to enable them to do the sorts of things that minds can do. Some of these things are commonly regarded as requiring intelligence: offering a medical diagnosis and/or prescription, giving legal or scientific advice, proving theorems in logic or mathematics. Others are not, because they can be done by all normal adults irrespective of educational background (and sometimes by non-human animals too), and typically involve no conscious control: seeing things in sunlight and shadows, finding a path through cluttered terrain, fitting pegs into holes, speaking one's own native tongue, and using one's common sense. Because it covers AI research dealing with both these classes of mental capacity, this definition is preferable to one describing AI as making computers do "things that would require intelligence if done by people." However, it presupposes that computers could do what minds can do, that they might really diagnose, advise, infer, and understand. One could avoid this problematic assumption (and also side-step questions about whether computers do things in the same way as we do) by defining AI instead as "the development of computers whose observable performance has features which in humans we would attribute to mental processes." This bland characterization would be acceptable to some AI workers, especially amongst those focusing on the production of technological tools for commercial purposes. But many others would favour a more controversial definition, seeing AI as the science of intelligence in general-or, more accurately, as the intellectual core of cognitive science. As such, its goal is to provide a systematic theory that can explain (and perhaps enable us to replicate) both the general categories of intentionality and the diverse psychological capacities grounded in them. (Boden, 1990b, pp. 1-2)
       Because the ability to store data somewhat corresponds to what we call memory in human beings, and because the ability to follow logical procedures somewhat corresponds to what we call reasoning in human beings, many members of the cult have concluded that what computers do somewhat corresponds to what we call thinking. It is no great difficulty to persuade the general public of that conclusion since computers process data very fast in small spaces well below the level of visibility; they do not look like other machines when they are at work. They seem to be running along as smoothly and silently as the brain does when it remembers and reasons and thinks. On the other hand, those who design and build computers know exactly how the machines are working down in the hidden depths of their semiconductors. Computers can be taken apart, scrutinized, and put back together. Their activities can be tracked, analyzed, measured, and thus clearly understood-which is far from possible with the brain. This gives rise to the tempting assumption on the part of the builders and designers that computers can tell us something about brains, indeed, that the computer can serve as a model of the mind, which then comes to be seen as some manner of information processing machine, and possibly not as good at the job as the machine. (Roszak, 1994, pp. xiv-xv)
       The inner workings of the human mind are far more intricate than the most complicated systems of modern technology. Researchers in the field of artificial intelligence have been attempting to develop programs that will enable computers to display intelligent behavior. Although this field has been an active one for more than thirty-five years and has had many notable successes, AI researchers still do not know how to create a program that matches human intelligence. No existing program can recall facts, solve problems, reason, learn, and process language with human facility. This lack of success has occurred not because computers are inferior to human brains but rather because we do not yet know in sufficient detail how intelligence is organized in the brain. (Anderson, 1995, p. 2)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Artificial Intelligence

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